Empirical Rule for Mean, Median, and Mode

Within sets of data, there are a variety of descriptive statistics. The mean, median and mode all give measures of the center of the data, but they calculate this in different ways: The mean is calculated by adding all of the data values together, then dividing by the total number of values.The median is calculated by listing the data values in ascending order, then finding the middle value in the list.The mode is calculated by counting how many times each value occurs. The value that occurs with the highest frequency is the mode. On the surface, it would appear that there is no connection between these three numbers. However, it turns out that there is an empirical relationship between these measures of center. Theoretical vs. Empirical Before we go on, it is important to understand what we are talking about when we refer to an empirical relationship and contrast this with theoretical studies. Some results in statistics and other fields of knowledge can be derived from some previous statements in a theoretical manner. We begin with what we know, and then use logic, mathematics, and deductive reasoning and see where this leads us. The result is a direct consequence of other known facts. Contrasting with the theoretical is the empirical way of acquiring knowledge. Rather than reasoning from already established principles, we can observe the world around us. From these observations, we can then formulate an explanation of what we have seen. Much of science is done in this manner. Experiments give us empirical data. The goal then becomes to formulate an explanation that fits all of the data. Empirical Relationship In statistics, there is a relationship between the mean, median and mode that is empirically based. Observations of countless data sets have shown that most of the time the difference between the mean and the mode is three times the difference between the mean and the median. This relationship in equation form is: Mean – Mode 3(Mean – Median). Example To see the above relationship with real world data, let’s take a look at the U.S. state populations in 2010. In millions, the populations were: California - 36.4, Texas - 23.5, New York - 19.3, Florida - 18.1, Illinois - 12.8, Pennsylvania - 12.4, Ohio - 11.5, Michigan - 10.1, Georgia - 9.4, North Carolina - 8.9, New Jersey - 8.7, Virginia - 7.6, Massachusetts - 6.4, Washington - 6.4, Indiana - 6.3, Arizona - 6.2, Tennessee - 6.0, Missouri - 5.8, Maryland - 5.6, Wisconsin - 5.6, Minnesota - 5.2, Colorado - 4.8, Alabama - 4.6, South Carolina - 4.3, Louisiana - 4.3, Kentucky - 4.2, Oregon - 3.7, Oklahoma - 3.6, Connecticut - 3.5, Iowa - 3.0, Mississippi - 2.9, Arkansas - 2.8, Kansas - 2.8, Utah - 2.6, Nevada - 2.5, New Mexico - 2.0, West Virginia - 1.8, Nebraska - 1.8, Idaho - 1.5, Maine - 1.3, New Hampshire - 1.3, Hawaii - 1.3, Rhode Island - 1.1, Montana - .9, Delaware - .9, South Dakota - .8, Alaska - .7, North Dakota - .6, Vermont - .6, Wyoming - .5 The mean population is 6.0 million. The median population is 4.25 million. The mode is 1.3 million. Now we will calculate the differences from the above: Mean – Mode 6.0 million – 1.3 million 4.7 million.3(Mean – Median) 3(6.0 million – 4.25 million) 3(1.75 million) 5.25 million. While these two differences numbers do not match exactly, they are relatively close to one another. Application There are a couple of applications for the above formula. Suppose that we do not have a list of data values, but do know any two of the mean, median or mode. The above formula could be used to estimate the third unknown quantity. For instance, if we know that we have a mean of 10, a mode of 4, what is the median of our data set? Since Mean – Mode 3(Mean – Median), we can say that 10 – 4 3(10 – Median). By some algebra, we see that 2 (10 – Median), and so the median of our data is 8. Another application of the above formula is in calculating skewness. Since skewness measures the difference between the mean and the mode, we could instead calculate 3(Mean – Mode). To make this quantity dimensionless, we can divide it by the standard deviation to give an alternate means of calculating the skewness than using moments in statistics. A Word of Caution As seen above, the above is not an exact relationship. Instead, it is a good rule of thumb, similar to that of the range rule, which establishes an approximate connection between the standard deviation and range. The mean, median and mode may not fit exactly into the above empirical relationship, but there’s a good chance that it will be reasonably close.

Critique of a Research Article - 3113 Words

Comparison of language used and patterns of communication in inter-professional and multidisciplinary teams. This assignment will look at an article by Sheehan, Robertson and Ormond (2007) who are educators with speech/language, medical radiation technology and occupational therapy professional backgrounds. The researchers are professionals from Christchurch College of Education, School of Occupational Therapy and the University of Canterbury respectively. The article was published in the Journal of Inter professional Care in New Zealand. The article was chosen because it highlights the complex interactions and communication that occur in multidisciplinary and interprofessional teams. It also reflects on experience encountered during†¦show more content†¦| |ï ¿ ½Ã¯ ¿ ½Ã¯ ¿ ½Ã¯ ¿ ½Ã¯ ¿ ½Ã¯ ¿ ½ grounded theory |The study adopted a case study method with the researchers being | |ï ¿ ½Ã¯ ¿ ½Ã¯ ¿ ½Ã¯ ¿ ½Ã¯ ¿ ½Ã¯ ¿ ½ participatory action research |involved in what is being observed. The case study method is | |ï ¿ ½Ã¯ ¿ ½Ã¯ ¿ ½Ã¯ ¿ ½Ã¯ ¿ ½Ã¯ ¿ ½ other |therefore suitable for realist research. Rather than a research | | |method, Whittaker (2010, p.12) saw case study as more a focus of | | |study in which a variety of research method can be used. | | | | | | | | | | |Show MoreRelatedCritique Of A Research Article1750 Words   |  7 PagesCritique of a research article This paper is a critique of Alison Fuller and Lorna Unwin’s research article ‘Knowledge Workers’ as the New Apprentices: The Influence of Organisational Autonomy, Goals and Values on the Nurturing of Expertise’ Vocations and Learning’. 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Ways That WSQ Framework Addresses Challenges

Question: Discuss about the Ways That WSQ Framework Addresses Challenges. Answer: Ways That WSQ Framework Addresses Challenges of VUCA Environment Workforce Skills Qualification (WSQ) Framework is a Singapore system that trains adults working in various industries. WSQ is involved in crediting and setting standards for employees skills in different industries ("WSQ frameworks: HR, leadership and people management", 2017). Organizations are continuously faced with challenges that are brought by VUCA environment. This paper discusses WSQ Framework and how its addresses the challenges brought by VUCA environment. WSQ Framework is a skill developing, recognizing and certification system of employees. The framework work is developed by the Workforce Development Agency in partnership with the industry stakeholders. The WSQ aims to provide continuous education and training to employees to maintain and improve competences to offer industry expectations of their jobs (Kuruvilla Chua, 2009). The WSQ Framework is comprised of competency map, qualifications framework, competency standards and lastly a curriculum, training and assessment guides. These components ensure that the WSQ framework is appropriate and meets its objectives. VUCA environment represent factors in the business that hinder certainty and predictability in organizations. VUCA stands for volatility, uncertainty, complexity and ambiguity (Berinato, 2014). Volatility refers to highly changing situations in business. Uncertainty refers to inability to predict outcome. Complexity refers to interdependences. This involves connections in the society and the economy especially as a result of globalization. Lastly, ambiguity represents the many choices that exist and emanate in business environment. These choices result to different outcomes that have impact on business. WSQ Framework offers continuous training in VUCA environment. WSQ ensures that there is progressive upgrade of employees knowledge increasing efficiencies and effectiveness in organizations (Klimplova, 2012). First, WSQ framework enables employees and employers understand the new trends in the industry and adopt change. Organizations are able to timely adopt new developments in the industry that reduces decrease in performance as a result of delayed or late adoption of change. WSQ also enable organizations predict so that they can manage volatility in businesses. Second, WSQ Framework equips employees with skill to deal with uncertainty. Employees are trained to handle uncertain outcomes that can occur in the organization. The workforce is also trained on current and more reliable methods of predicting outcomes and therefore reducing uncertainty of outcome. Third, complexities in the business environment increase with increasing globalization and other developments in the society. Co mplexities lead to interdependences that require clarity and understanding from the workforce to avoid creating a negative impact to the organization. These complexities include cultural values and new regulations. Understanding societys and other individuals culture make employees appreciate one another culture. This enhances good working relationships that improve organizational performances. The WSQ educate employees of the new regulations enabling them to adopt new changes in the society. For instance human rights, diversity and equalities have been taking a new development that has led to changes in perceptions and attitudes in business. This is a result of converging human behavior due to globalization. WSQ Framework educates employees complexities enabling them to manage them constructively. Lastly, WSQ framework analysis the business environment to offer employees and employers information enabling making of informed decisions. Information provided in WSQ Framework enables u nderstanding of different situations affecting the business. This reduces the ambiguity in choices that organizations can make. Also, the WSQ framework offers recommendations for decisions to be made in the organization for specific period that reduce ambiguity in the industry. For instance, WSQ advice on investments on technologies and skills those are timely to businesses in the industry. In general, WSQ Framework is a forefront system to addressing VUCA environment. WSQ Framework provides continuous, regular and timely training to handle challenges as brought by VUCA environment. It offers new skill, information and creates knowledge to solve issues related to VUCA environment. Addressing new skills and development in the industry enables organizations deal with VUCA environment when making decision. In summary, WSQ Framework improves skills and disseminates new information in the industry that addresses challenges brought by VUCA environment. References Berinato, S. (2014). A Framework for Understanding VUCA. Harvard Business Review. Retrieved 10 March 2017, from https://hbr.org/2014/09/a-framework-for-understanding-vuca Klimplova, L. (2012). Employers View on Problems Related to Workforce Skills and Qualification. Journal Of Competitiveness, 4(4), 50-66. https://dx.doi.org/10.7441/joc.2012.04.04 Kuruvilla, S. Chua, R. (2009). How Do Nations Increase Workforce Skills? Factors Influencing the Success of the Singapore Skills Development System. Global Business Review, 1(1), 11-47. https://dx.doi.org/10.1177/097215090000100102 WSQ frameworks: HR, leadership and people management. (2017). Ministry of Manpower Singapore. Retrieved 10 March 2017, from https://www.mom.gov.sg/employment-practices/skills-training-and-development/national-hr-capability/hr-leadership-and-people-management

Hierarchy Of Needs Essay Example For Students

Hierarchy Of Needs Essay The hierarchy of needs and the hygiene theory are alike but are also different. I shall go through each one of these theories and inform the reader of thesedifferences and similarities. Each one in its own right is correct but now thatwe near the millenium, we should rethink or atleast re-read these theories andsee if they are, in fact, still alive today. Abraham Maslow is known forestablishing the theory of a hierarchy of needs, writing that human beings aremotivated by unsatisfied needs, and that certain lower needs need to besatisfied before higher needs can be satisfied. Maslow studied exemplary peoplesuch as Albert Einstein, Jane Addams, Eleanor Roosevelt, and Frederick Douglasrather than mentally ill or neurotic people. This was a radical departure fromtwo of the chief schools of psychology of his day: Freud and B.F. Skinner. Freudsaw little difference between the motivations of humans and animals. We aresupposedly rational beings; however, we do not act that way. Such pessimism,Maslow believed, was the result of Freuds study of mentally ill people. The study of crippled, stunted, immature, and unhealthy specimens canyield only a cripple psychology and a cripple philosophy (Motivation andPersonality). Skinner, on the other hand, studied how pigeons and white ratslearn. His motivational models were based on simple rewards such as food andwater, sex, and avoidance of pain. Say sit to your dog and give thedog a treat when it sits, and-after several repetitionsthe dog will sit whenyou command it to do so. Maslow thought that psychologists should instead studythe playfulness, affection, etc., of animals. Maslows hierarchy of needs was analternative to the depressing determinism of Freud and Skinner. He felt thatpeople are basically trustworthy, self-protecting, and self-governing. Humanstend toward growth and love. Although there is a continuous cycle of human wars,murder, deceit, etc., he believed that violence is not what human nature ismeant to be like. Violence and other evils occur when human needs are thwarted. In other words, people who are deprived of lower needs such as safety may defendthemselves by violent means. He did not believe that humans are violent becausethey enjoy violence. Or that they lie, cheat, and steal because they enjoy doingit. According to Maslow, there are general types of needs (physiological,safety, love, and esteem) that must be satisfied before a person can actunselfishly. He called these needs deficiency needs. As long as weare motivated to satisfy these cravings, we are moving towards growth, towardself-actualization. Satisfying needs is healthy; locking gratification makes ussick or evil. In other words, we are all needs junkies with cravingsthat must be satisfied and should be satisfied. Else, we become sick. Needs areproponent. A proponent need is one that has the greatest influence over ouractions. Everyone has a proponent need, but that need will vary amongindividuals. A teenager may have a need to feel that a group accepts him. Aheroin addict will need to satisfy his/her cravings for heroin to functionnormally in society, and will not worry about acceptance by other people. According to Maslow, when the deficiency needs are met: At once other (andhigher) needs emerge, and these, rather than physiological hungers, dominate theorganism. And when these in turn are satisfied, again new (and still higher)needs emerge, and so on. As one desire is satisfied, another pops up to take itsplace. Physiological needs are the very basic needs such as air, water, food,sleep, sex, etc. When these are not satisfied we may feel sickness, irritation,pain, discomfort, etc. These feelings motivate us to alleviate them as soon aspossible to establish homeostasis. Once they are alleviated, we may think aboutother things. Safety needs have to do with establishing stability andconsistency in a chaotic world. These needs are mostly psychological in nature. .u12586eba24fbf248fe3cb5fbe4c9a4f7 , .u12586eba24fbf248fe3cb5fbe4c9a4f7 .postImageUrl , .u12586eba24fbf248fe3cb5fbe4c9a4f7 .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .u12586eba24fbf248fe3cb5fbe4c9a4f7 , .u12586eba24fbf248fe3cb5fbe4c9a4f7:hover , .u12586eba24fbf248fe3cb5fbe4c9a4f7:visited , .u12586eba24fbf248fe3cb5fbe4c9a4f7:active { border:0!important; } .u12586eba24fbf248fe3cb5fbe4c9a4f7 .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .u12586eba24fbf248fe3cb5fbe4c9a4f7 { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .u12586eba24fbf248fe3cb5fbe4c9a4f7:active , .u12586eba24fbf248fe3cb5fbe4c9a4f7:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .u12586eba24fbf248fe3cb5fbe4c9a4f7 .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .u12586eba24fbf248fe3cb5fbe4c9a4f7 .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .u12586eba24fbf248fe3cb5fbe4c9a4f7 .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .u12586eba24fbf248fe3cb5fbe4c9a4f7 .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .u12586eba24fbf248fe3cb5fbe4c9a4f7:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .u12586eba24fbf248fe3cb5fbe4c9a4f7 .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .u12586eba24fbf248fe3cb5fbe4c9a4f7 .u12586eba24fbf248fe3cb5fbe4c9a4f7-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .u12586eba24fbf248fe3cb5fbe4c9a4f7:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: The Role Of The Author EssayWe need the security of a home and family. However, if a family is dysfunction,i.e., an abusive husband, the wife cannot move to the next level because she isconstantly concerned for her safety. Love and belongingness have to wait untilshe is no longer cringing in fear. Many in our society cry out for law and orderbecause they do not feel safe enough to go for a walk in their neighborhood. Many people, particularly those in the inner cities, unfortunately, are stuck atthis level. In addition, safety needs sometimes motivate people to be religious. Religions comfort us with the promise of a safe secure place after we die andleave the insecurity of this world. Love and belongingness are next on theladder. Humans have a desire to belong to groups: clubs, work groups, religiousgroups, family, gangs, etc. We need to feel loved (non-sexual) by others, to beaccepted by others. Performers appreciate applause. We need to be needed. Beercommercials, in addition to playing on sex, also often show how beer makes forcamaraderie. When was the last time you saw a beer commercial with someonedrinking beer alone? There are two types of esteem needs. First is self-esteem,which results from competence or mastery of a task. Second, theres theattention and recognition that comes from others. This is similar to thebelongingness level; however, wanting admiration has to do with the need forpower. People who have all of their lower needs satisfied, often drive veryexpensive cars because doing so raises their level of esteem. Hey, lookwhat I can affor d! The need for self-actualization is the desire tobecome more and more what one is, to become everything that one is capable ofbecoming. People who have everything can maximize their potential. Theycan seek knowledge, peace, esthetic experiences, self-fulfillment, and onenesswith God, etc. It is usually middle-class to upper-class students who take upenvironmental causes, join the Peace Corps, go off to a monastery, etc. On theother hand, Herzberg`s hygiene theory is not as complicated as Maslow. Herzbergs methods still yield useful results. His use of event descriptionsencouraged honest replies, and his insistence on events of extreme feelingsensured that the important factors were mentioned. Respondents did not offer anynew event factors that were not in Herzbergs study 30 years ago. Some oldfactors, however, were noticeably absent. Salary and working conditions were notmentioned as a satisfier or as a dissatisfier, suggesting that they are notimportant as motivators or demotivators. Advancement as a satisfier did notappear as well. However, these indications could easily be due to either a smallsample or single-company bias. The event factors still split into satisfiers anddissatisfiers, confirming the duality of the Dual Factor Theory. Achievement wasstill the top motivator, and company policy the largest demotivator. Recognitionand responsibility functioned as a satisfier only half as much as in Herzbergsstudy. The relationship between factors, attitudes, and effects sti ll held. Whatwas interesting was the impact on performance. When events caused positiveattitudes, performance increased in most cases. When events caused negativeattitudes, performance decreased in most cases. Although confidentiality couldbe maintained in this study, using a survey made a poor response rate morelikely. To mitigate this effect, future studies should consider corporateendorsement of the study, a system to trace responses, or a switch to aninterview of a limited number of employees. The duration of events was used toeliminate events that never ended. These represented a state of mind more thanan event and were not applicable to the analysis. The duration of feelings wasto identify those events that were more important as a result of their lastingimpact. In general, observed differences from the 1950s data can be explained bysample bias, and the points of agreement support the contention that Herzbergsmotivational theory is alive and well in the 1990s. Herzberg thought it morelikely that the truth would emerge when an individual could describe an actualevent, especially a memorable one. To answer the second part of the question,Herzberg`s theory didn`t say anything about salaries to motivate performance. Ifound that in Maslow`s theory, salary would probably be an esteem need. Ifsomeone has a higher salary then a fellow worker, they might see the car theydrive or house they live in. The lower salary worker would see this and, inturn, be motivated if a raise was promised. So, then he could compete with hisfellow worker.